The Bayeux Tapestry - Seven Ages of Britain

Here is a quick look at the Bayeux Tapestry taken from the BBC series "The Seven Ages of Britain". It shows the tapestry in its museum in the French town of Bayeux.

The Bayeux Tapestry Powerpoint

The Bayeux Tapestry (complete)

View more presentations from anthony_morgan

The Bayeux Tapestry and Translation

Here is a website that contains the complete tapestry with a translation of the Latin.

The Bayeux Tapestry - Animated

Here is an animated version of the Bayeux Tapestry. It starts about halfway through the original work at the appearence of Halley's Comet and concludes at the Battle of Hastings in 1066.

The Iceman Video

Here is the video on Otzi that we watched in class.

The Iceman

"Ötzi," the Iceman

On September 19, 1991, in the remote mountains on the border of Austria and Italy, hikers stumbled upon the corpse of a 5,300 year-old man. Dubbed "Ötzi," this perfectly preserved iceman is the oldest human ever found. But who was he and how did he die?

After nearly tens years of careful study scientist didn't have a clue to Ötzi's death until, by chance, a dark spot on an X-ray was given a closer look. To everyone's surprise the spot turned out to be an arrowhead, still embedded in Ötzi's left shoulder. The researchers now know that Iceman was killed by an assassin from behind using a bow and arrow.

Investigators determine that the dead man was in his 40s, had numerous tattoos. He possessed appropriately warm clothing for the hostile environment where he died, and indeed, he may have died after a violent clash.

Arrow Wound

But Ötzi is no crime statistic. Rather, this man lived 5,300 years ago. He is the oldest and best-preserved natural mummy ever found, so protected by the cold that researchers can determine how he lived, where he came from, what ailed him, what he ate for his last meal, and what ultimately must have killed him.

Ötzi lived and died before recorded human history but the story written in his clothes, tools, skin, hair -- and even inside his immaculately preserved body -- will revolutionize how we view our ancestors from the Stone Age.

Tattoos
Scientists were surprised to find 59 markings on Ötzi's skin that are clearly tattoos. They were even more surprised that his back and leg tattoos were on, or near, typical acupuncture points for treating back and leg pain. X-rays showed evidence of osteoarthrosis in Ötzi that might have responded to acupuncture.

But there's a problem with this theory: Acupuncture is believed to have originated in China 2,000 to 3,000 years ago. But because of Ötzi, some scientists now think that acupuncture (or at least an acupuncture type of medical system) was practiced 5,300 years ago a long long way from China.

It now looks probable that acupuncture or something like it arose simultaneously in different cultures, indicating that prehistoric populations may have had a deep, possibly intuitive, knowledge of the body.

Copper Axe

Copper axe
One of the most stunning discoveries in Ötzi's possession was a copper axe. Why? Because scientists had long believed that humans in Italy were melting and shaping copper with such precision only about 4,000 years ago, more than 500 years after Ötzi lived.

Additionally, analysis of Ötzi's hair seems to indicate that he did much copper work himself. Truly, this mummy is forcing archaeologists to revisit what should be considered the Copper Age.

The handle of Ötzi's axe was 2 feet long and made of yew wood. The blade was less than 4 inches long, its edge slightly curved with small points at its tips. The blank of the blade was cast. This means some quantity of metal was melted in a thick-walled ceramic pot by heating it with a bellows to at least 1,100 degrees Celsius, then poured into a mold.

Surface analysis of the axe head shows the metal is 99.7 percent copper, 0.22 percent arsenic, and 0.09 percent silver. Arsenic and silver trace elements mean the blade was probably made of copper from a local source.

Clothing
Scientists were surprised not only by the warmth of Ötzi's clothing, but also by the quality of its construction.

The iceman was found nude, but he had with him three layers of finely stitched clothes: Leather and fur from domestic and wild animals provided most of his wardrobe. The outer layer was a woven grass cape or cloak.

Scraps of Clothing w/ sketch of cloak

The grass cloak was open in front and may have had slits for his arms. It was braided from long grasses and would have provided a level of water repellence over his fur clothing and gear. The cloak may have also been used as a ground cloth or a blanket.

Up from his shoes he was covered with leather leggings that fit loosely around his thighs and attached to his belt.

This is the first well-preserved evidence of Neolithic clothes for researchers.

Bear Fur Hat (Image below)
On his head, the iceman wore a tall cap made of individually cut pieces of bear fur. It included leather straps, which might have served as a chin strap.

Cloak (See image of Scraps of Clothing)
The braided grass cloak was open in front and may have had slits for his arms.

Leggins (Image below)
Up from his shoes, the iceman was covered with leather leggings that fit loosely around his thighs and attached to his belt.

Dagger (Image below)
It's clear from the gear on and around Ötzi that he not only was a skilled craftsman, but knew very much about the proper material for the proper job. He carried a little flint-tipped dagger with a handle made of ash, a wood that is still used today by artisans to make strong handles for implements.

The dagger had twin cutting edges, and Ötzi would have carried it attached to his waist. It was found inside a finely braided scabbard.

The dagger would have been used as a multipurpose tool, but often to skin animals, clean hides and cut meat into strips.

Iceman's Arrows

Broken Arrows
Ötzi's fur quiver, where he kept his rosewood arrows, contained 12 blank shafts and two finished arrows, which were broken.

The iceman's bow and arrows have been the subject of considerable speculation among the experts who have studied his remains. The fact that he carried mostly broken arrows and a bow under construction (but no usable bow in his possession) has led to theories that Ötzi had recently met with a violent encounter -- either with other humans or a wild animal and perhaps had fled high into the mountains in retreat.

They assume that he found a suitable piece of wood from an evergreen yew trunk and was working on it at night while resting at camp. Perhaps he was even working on it before falling asleep the night he died.

His bow was more than 6 feet long. The yew wood from which he worked was ideal for bow-making; it's tough and elastic, almost never splinters and has no resin. The quiver contained two arrows ready to be shot (with flint arrowheads), 12 partly finished arrow shafts, a coiled string, four bundled stag-antler fragments, an antler point and two bundled animal sinews. The antler fragments could have been used to carve at least eight arrowheads, although the completed arrowheads were carved from flint, which was probably the preferred material.

The Iceman's Body
On September 19, 1991, Ötzi (the name given him by scientists) was found at about 10,500 feet in the Öztal Alps on the border between Austria and Italy. His body was so well-preserved that the hikers who found him and the first investigators assumed he had been dead for a relatively short time.

So archaeologists were not immediately consulted, and Ötzi remained frozen on the mountain for four more days, his upper body protruding from a glacier. The lag allowed curious onlookers to poke around, including one member of the Alpine Rescue Service, who inadvertently damaged the left hip and buttock with a pneumatic hammer, trying to dig the corpse from the ground.

As Ötzi's body began to thaw from its icy grave, it became apparent that this was no modern European. About 5 feet 4 inches tall, possessing three layers of furs and grass clothes, he had well-lined shoes, a belt from which to drape his loincloth and suspend his leggings, a jacket, a cape and a bearskin hat.

Today, Ötzi resides in a cold-storage vault in the Archaeological Museum of Bolzano* in Italy. The vault temperature remains at a constant -6 C, with a relative humidity of 96 to 98 percent. For investigational purposes the body is removed from storage and put in a laminar flow box for no longer than 11 minutes at a time.

Iceman's Fur Hat

Iceman's Leggings

Iceman's Dagger

Scientist: Ötzi the Iceman Died Violently
By Rossella Lorenzi, Discovery News

March 20, 2002 -

A violent hand-to-hand encounter marked the last hours of Ötzi the Iceman, the world's oldest and best-preserved mummy, according to dramatic findings that emerged during filming of a Discovery Channel documentary.

Eduard Egarter Vigl, official caretaker of the 5,300-year-old mummy at the Archaeological Museum in Bolzano*, Italy, announced Wednesday that he had found a deep knife wound on the mummy's right hand. Probably the result of a defensive act, the wound dates back to Ötzi's last hours and, combined with the arrowhead found in the man's left shoulder last summer, supports the theory that he was the victim of violence.

---

August, 2003

Even More Presumed Details of Ötzi's Final Fight (8/13/03):
Molecular biologist Thomas Loy (from the University of Queensland's Institute of Molecular Bioscience in Brisbane) who headed the DNA research team has given many interviews in the last few days expanding on his theory of what happened to the Iceman. According to Loy, this is what happened to Ötzi (based on conclusions he has drawn from his DNA research and his study of Ötzi's weapons and tools):

1. The Fight
Loy concludes that Ötzi encountered hunters from another area; they fought. "Rather than a simple murder... it looks like [Ötzi] may have put himself into a boundary situation where bloody battles often occur," Loy told Reuters (reported on CNN.com). "Presumably he was in a combat situation for between 24 to 48 hours before he died."

2. His Wounds
During the fight, Ötzi was shot in the back with an arrow. He also received cuts on his hands, wrists, and rib cage. Using his bow, he also shot "at least two different people and retrieved his arrow, but then he shot at something else and missed, shattering his arrow" (Reuters, CNN.com). As one of his last acts, Loy concluded that the Iceman tried to fashion one arrow from two broken ones.

3. His Companion(s)
Loy, who is an expert on prehistoric tools and weapons, concluded that Ötzi could not have removed the arrow from his back by himself. This suggests that he was traveling with someone. Additional blood (not Ötzi's) found on his goatskin coat indicated to Loy that Ötzi carried a wounded companion some distance. What Loy doesn't answer (in his theory): Is this the same companion who removed the arrow or an additional companion?

4. Type of Hunter
Loy studied the Iceman's arrows and concluded that, since they were very lightweight and quite long, they were more suited to higher elevations (above the tree line). They wouldn't have worked well in a forest, because they could have been too easily deflected.

5. His Death
Loy told NPR: "I suspect that as he realized his life was ending, he stopped, put his gear [down], stacked it neatly against a rock wall and lay down and expired."

From another intrview, (8/10/03)...
Results of recent DNA tests conducted by an Australian researcher have led to all sorts of new speculation about Ötzi's final days. Like crime scene investigators, molecular biologist Thomas Loy and his team (from the University of Queensland's Institute of Molecular Bioscience in Brisbane) looked for blood traces on the Iceman, his tools, and weapons. During their investigation, they saw further signs of trauma to Ötzi's body, including bruises (and cuts) on his abdomen (especially on his rib area), which (they concluded) indicates that he may have been beaten. They found DNA from four different people other than the Iceman, and they carried out each test twice to be certain of their findings.

Dr. Loy told a reporter from USA Today, "We have been working round the clock for the last three weeks to get these results. It was very exciting when the blood samples came back positive for human DNA from four separate individuals."

Specifically, they took samples from the Iceman's antler-skinning tool, his stone-tipped knife, two of his arrows (one broken), his axe handle, and his goatskin coat. Using techniques devised especially for ancient DNA, the team found four different DNA sequences: one on the knife blade, two different sequences on one arrow, and a fourth on Ötzi's goatskin coat. (They also found a small tear in the coat which may have been the entry point of the arrowhead that was found embedded in his shoulder.)

They have interpreted these findings in this way:
1. The two different blood samples on the arrow may indicate that Ötzi killed two of his assailants and retrieved the arrow to use again.
2. The blood on his coat may indicate that Ötzi carried a wounded friend on his shoulder for some distance.

Dr. Loy told news.com.au: "On the basis of all my examinations, [Ötzi's] specialty was hunting the high alpine passes for ibex and possibly chamois which would have taken him into boundary conditions where other people would have disputed the territory. His gear was stacked up neatly. He didn't keel over, although he was probably tired, exhausted and hurt like hell."

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Confirmed:
Ötzi Was an Early Italian (7/25/03) One of the most important political questions about Ötzi is: who owns him. Austria and Italy fought a bitter battle over custody, resolved when authorities confirmed that his findspot was located in Italy. That meant Italy was allowed to claim the Iceman, build a large modern museum to exhibit him, and reap substantial financial rewards. But the issue wasn't truly settled, because many people wondered where Ötzi came from. Was he a pre-Austrian (on his way to what is now Italy) or a pre-Italian (on his way to the area that has become Austria)? Now we know, thanks to research by Dr. Wolfgang Mueller from the Research School of Earth Sciences at the Australian National University in Canberra.

Dr. Mueller studied the mineral composition of Ötzi's dental enamel and and one leg bone. He then compared this analysis to isotopes found in the environment north and south of Ötzi's findspot.

"From the enamel it is possible to reconstruct the composition of the water Ötzi drank and get clues about the earth where his food was grown," Dr Mueller said. "As a result we now know Ötzi came from near to where he was found from the Eisack Valley [in the South Tyrol part of Italy]. He spent his childhood there. And he spent his adulthood in Lower Vinschgau [also in the Italian Tyrol]."

Translation:
Ötzi lived his life in the area south of the findspot, making him a very, very early Italian. Dr. Mueller also concluded that Ötzi was not a world traveller (he hadn't hiked all over Europe) and hadn't spent extensive time at higher elevations.

The Iceman's Wounded Hand (2/2003): The February 2003 issue of the Smithsonian contains an article by Bob Cullen summarizing what has been discovered about the Iceman.

A filmmaker working on a documentary for the Discovery Channel interviewed one of the men who helped recover the Iceman's body and learned that Ötzi may have been holding a dagger in his hand when he was discovered. Dr Egarter Vigl re-examined the Iceman's right hand in June 2002 and "found a small cut running from the palm of the right hand, just below the index finger, over to the top side of the hand" (Smithsonian). About 1.5 inches long and 6 mm. deep, the cut was discolored along the edges, indicating that the injury happened when the Iceman was alive. Dr. Egarter told author Cullen, "I think that the wound was very painful. Two fingers are nearly immobilized." X-rays also revealed two cuts on the underlying bones (of the palm and the wrist).

Additional study of the Iceman's body would help clarify questions surrounding the cause of death: If the officials at the South Tyrol Museum would grant permission, the arrowhead could be removed and an endoscopy performed to determine if any nerves or blood vessels were severed. 

---

SOURCES:
- The Discovery Channel
- *Archaeological Museum, Bolzano, Italy, Web site
- Smithsonian, (2/2003)
- News.com.au (7/25/03 and 8/11/03)
- USA Today (8/11/03)
- AGI Online (8/12/03)
- CNN.com (8/13/03)
- NPR.org (8/13/03)

Death in Sakkara

 

At the BBC History site there is a fun online game called "Death in Sakkara". Play it!

Maps of Ancient Egypt

 

Historical Terminology

Choose a Study ModeScatterLearnFlashcards

Study these flash cards | Study history flash cards

Sources We Looked At

Canopic Jars

Lamp found near Jerusalem dated to the First Century

 

Seal of King John from the Magna Carta

Roman Denarius from 49 B.C.E.

Australian Penny showing King George V

Australian Penny (other side)

An Australian $1 Note

Australian $2 Notes 

 

 

 

 

Using Sources

A Horde of Roman Coins (a primary source)

Historians get their information from two different kinds of sources: primary and secondary. Primary sources are first hand sources; secondary sources are second-hand sources. For example, suppose there had been a car accident. The description of the accident which a witness gives to the police is a primary source because it comes from someone actually there at the time. The story in the newspaper the next day is a secondary source because the reporter who wrote the story did not actually witness it. The reporter is presenting a way of understanding the accident or an interpretation..


Using Primary Sources

Primary sources are interesting to read for their own sake: they give us first hand, you-are-there insights into the past. They are also the most important tools an historian has for developing an understanding of an event. Primary sources serve as the evidence an historian uses in developing an interpretation and in building an argument to support that interpretation. You will be using primary sources not only to help you better understand what went on, but also as evidence as you answer questions and develop arguments about the past.


I. Reading a primary source.
Primary Sources do not speak for themselves, they have to be interpreted. That is, we can't always immediately understand what a primary source means, especially if it is from a culture significantly different from our own. It is therefore necessary to try to understand what it means and to figure out what the source can tell us about the past.

To help you interpret primary sources, you should think about these questions as you examine the source:
A. Place the source in its historical context.

• 1. Who wrote it? What do you know about the author?
• 2. Where and when was it written?
• 3. Why was it written?
• 4. To what audience is it addressed? What do you know about this audience?

B. Classify the source.

• 1. What kind of work is it?
• 2. What was its purpose?
• 3. What are the important conventions and traditions governing this kind of source? Of what legal, political, religious or philosophical traditions is it a part?

C. Understand the source.

• 1. What are the key words in the source and what do they mean?
• 2. What point is the author trying to make? Summarize the thesis.
• 3. What evidence does the author give to support the thesis?
• 4. What assumptions underlay the argument?
• 5. What values does the source reflect?
• 6. What problems does it address? Can you relate these problems to the historical situation?
• 7. What action does the author expect as a result of this work? Who is to take this action? How does the source motivate that action?

D. Evaluate the source as a source of historical information.

• 1. How typical is this source for this period?
• 2. How widely was this source circulated?
• 3. What problems, assumptions, arguments, ideas and values, if any, does it share with other sources from this period?
• 4. What other evidence can you find to corroborate your conclusions?
  

II. Be Your Own Interpreter
It is very tempting in a course of this kind to use the textbook as a source of interpretations. If you encounter a primary source which you don't entirely understand it seems easiest to look up the proper interpretation in the text, rather than trying to figure it out for your self. In this course I would like to encourage you to develop your interpretation. This process will take some patience, some imagination, some practice and a lot of hard work on your part. But you will be developing an important, transferable skill and also the tools and attitudes you need to develop to think on your own.


Using Secondary Sources
There is a strong temptation in a history class to believe that the answers to all the questions are found in the textbook and that the object of the course is to learn the textbook. While it is certainly possible to approach this course in that manner, you will not learn as much since you will be a passive recipient of knowledge, rather than an active participant in the learning process, and it will actually mean more work for you since you will be doing more than you need to. This section is designed to help you use the textbook more efficiently and effectively.


I. Three ways to use a secondary source.
A. As a collection of facts.
Use a secondary source if you need to find a particular piece of information quickly. You might need to know, for example, when Ghengis Khan lived, in what year the cotton gin was invented or the population of London in 1648.
B. As a source of background material.
If your interests are focused on one subject, but you need to know something about what else was going on at that time or what happened earlier, you can use a secondary source to find the background material you might need. For example, if you are writing about Luther's 95 Theses, you should use a secondary source to help you understand the Catholic Church in the Renaissance.
C. As an interpretation.
Since the facts do not speak for themselves, it is necessary for the historian to make give them some shape and to put them in an order people can understand. This is called an interpretation. Many secondary sources provide not only information, but a way of making sense of that information. You should use a secondary source if you wish to understand how an historian makes sense of a particular event, person, or trend.


II. Using interpretations.
One of the most important tasks in reading a secondary source is find and understanding that particular author's interpretation. How does that particular author put the facts together so that they make sense?
A. Finding the interpretation.
Good authors want to communicate their interpretation. Because the reason for writing a book or article is to communicate something to another person, a good author will make the interpretation easy to find.

• 1. In an essay.

In an essay, particularly a short one, an author will often state the interpretation as part of the thesis statement. The thesis statement is the summary of what the author is going say in the essay. The thesis statement is usually found at the end of the introductory section or in the conclusion.

• 2. In a book.

In a longer work, such as a book, the author will very likely have many thesis statements, one or more for each section or chapter of the book. The thesis for the book as a whole will often be found either in the introduction or in the conclusion. The thesis for individual chapters are often found in the first or last paragraph. Topic sentences of paragraphs will also often have important clues as to the author's interpretation.
N.B. It is often helpful, particularly if you are interested in the author's interpretation to "gut" a book: Read only the first and last chapters in their entirety; for all of the other chapters, read only the first and last paragraphs. If this is a well written book, this should give you a fairly good idea of the author's point of view.
B. The importance of the interpretation.
An interpretation is the how an historian makes sense of some part of the past. Like a good story, well done history reveals not only the past, but something about the present as well. Great historians help us to see aspects of the past and about the human condition which we would not be able to find on our own.
C. Historians often disagree on interpretations.
Some facts are ambiguous. Historians ask different questions about the past. Historians have different values and come to the material with different beliefs about the world. For these and other reasons, historians often arrive at different interpretations of the same event. For example, many historians see the French Revolution as the result of beliefs in liberty and equality; other historians see the French Revolution as the result of the economic demands of a rising middle class. It is, therefore, important to be able to critically evaluate an historian's interpretation.


III. Evaluating an interpretation.
A. The Argument

• 1. What historical problem is the author addressing?
• 2. What is the thesis?
• 3. How is the thesis arrived at?
  • a. What type of history book is it?
  • b. What historical methods or techniques does the author use?
  • c. What evidence is presented?
  • d. Can you identify a school of interpretation?
  • 4. What sources are used?

B. Evaluation

• 1. Did the author present a convincing argument?
  • a. Does the evidence support the thesis?
  • b. Does the evidence in fact prove what the author claims it proves?
  • c. Has the author made any errors of fact?
• 2. Does the author use questionable methods or techniques?
• 3. What questions remain unanswered?
• 4. Does the author have a polemical purpose?
  • a. If so, does it interfere with the argument?
  • b. If not, might there be a hidden agenda?

C. The Debate

• 1. How does this book compare to others written on this or similar topics?
• 2. How do the theses differ?
• 3. Why do the theses differ?
  • a. Do they use the same or different sources?
  • b. Do they use these sources in the same way?
  • c. Do they use the same methods or techniques?
  • d. Do they begin from the same or similar points of view?
  • e. Are these works directed at the same or similar audience?
• 4. When were the works written?
• 5. Do the authors have different backgrounds?
• 6. Do they differ in their political, philosophical, ethical, cultural, or religious assumptions?

Copyright 2005 by David W. Koeller timemaster@thenagain.info All rights reserved.